Oaxaca

Oaxaca , officially the Free and Sovereign State of Oaxaca (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Oaxaca), is one of the 31 states which, along with the Federal District, make up the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided into 570 municipalities, of which 418 (almost three quarters) are governed by the system of Usos y costumbres (customs and traditions) with recognized local forms of self governance. Its capital city is Oaxaca de Juárez.

Oaxaca is located in Southwestern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Guerrero to the west, Puebla to the northwest, Veracruz to the north, Chiapas to the east. To the south, Oaxaca has a significant coastline on the Pacific Ocean.

The state is best known for its indigenous peoples and cultures. The most numerous and best known are the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, but there are sixteen that are officially recognized. These cultures have survived better than most others in Mexico due to the state's rugged and isolating terrain. Most live in the Central Valleys region, which is also an important area for tourism, attracting people for its archeological sites such as Monte Albán, native culture and crafts. Another important tourist area is the coast, which has the major resort of Huatulco. Oaxaca is also one of the most biologically diverse states in Mexico, ranking in the top three, along with Chiapas and Veracruz, for numbers of reptiles, amphibians, mammals and plants.

History

Name

The name of the state comes from the name of its capital city, Oaxaca. This name comes from the Nahuatl word "Huaxyacac", which refers to a tree called a "guaje" (Leucaena leucocephala) found around the capital city. The name was originally applied to the Valley of Oaxaca by Nahuatl-speaking Aztecs and passed on to the Spanish during the conquest of the Oaxaca region. The modern state was created in 1824, and the state seal was designed by Alfredo Canseco Feraud and approved by the government of Eduardo Vasconcelos. Nahuatl word "Huaxyacac" [waːʃ.ˈjá.kak] was transliterated as "Oaxaca" using Medieval Spanish orthography, in which the x represented the voiceless postalveolar fricative ([ʃ], the equivalent of English sh in "shop"), making "Oaxaca" pronounced as [waˈʃaka]. However, during the sixteenth century the voiceless fricative sound evolved into a voiceless velar fricative ([x], like the ch in Scottish "loch"), and Oaxaca began to be pronounced [waˈxaka]. In present-day Spanish, Oaxaca is pronounced [waˈxaka] or [waˈhaka], the latter pronunciation used mostly in dialects of southern Mexico, the Caribbean, much of Central America, some places in South America, and the Canary Islands and western Andalusia in Spain where [x] has become a voiceless glottal fricative ([h]).

Pre-historic and pre-Hispanic period

Most of what is known about pre-historic Oaxaca comes from archeological work in the Central Valleys region. Evidence of human habitation dating back to about 11,000 years BC has been found in the Guilá Naquitz cave near the town of Mitla. This area was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2010 in recognition for the "earliest known evidence of domesticated plants in the continent, while corn cob fragments from the same cave are said to be the earliest documented evidence for the domestication of maize." More finds of nomadic peoples date back to about 5000 BC, with some evidence of the beginning of agriculture. By 2000 BC, agriculture had been established in the Central Valleys region of the state, with sedentary villages. The diet developed around this time would remain until the Spanish Conquest, consisting primarily of harvested corn, beans, chocolate, tomatoes, chili peppers, squash and gourds. Meat was generally hunted and included tepescuintle, turkey, deer, peccary, armadillo and iguana.

The oldest known major settlements, such as Yanhuitlán and Laguna Zope are located in this area as well. The latter settlement is known for its small figures called "pretty women" or "baby face." Between 1200 and 900 BC, pottery was being produced in the area as well. This pottery has been linked with similar work done in La Victoria, Guatemala. Other important settlements from the same time period include Tierras Largas, San José Mogote and Guadalupe, whose ceramics show Olmec influence. The major native language family, Oto-Manguean, is thought to have been spoken in northern Oaxaca around 4400 BC and to have evolved into nine distinct branches by 1500 BC.

Historic events in Oaxaca as far back as the 12th century are described in pictographic codices painted by Zapotecs and Mixtecs in the beginning of the colonial period, but outside of the information that can be obtained through their study, little historical information from pre-colonial Oaxaca exist, and our knowledge of this period relies largely on archaeological remains. By 500 BC, the central valleys of Oaxaca were mostly inhabited by the Zapotecs, with the Mixtecs on the western side. These two groups were often in conflict throughout the pre-Hispanic period. Archeological evidence indicates that between 750 and 1521, there may have been population peaks of as high as 2.5 million.

The Zapotecs were the earliest to gain dominance over the Central Valleys region. The first major dominion was centered in Monte Albán, which flourished from 500 BC until AD 750 . At its height, Monte Albán was home to some 25,000 people and was the capital city of the Zapotec nation. It remained a secondary center of power for the Zapotecs until the Mixtecs overran it in 1325. The site contains a number of notable features including the Danzantes, a set of stone reliefs and the finding of fine quality ceramics.

Starting from AD 750 previous large urban centers such as Monte Alban fell across the Oaxaca area and smaller dominions grew and evolved until the Spanish Conquest in 1521. Between 700 and 1300, the Mixtec were scattered among various dominions, including those of Achiutla, Tequixtepec-Chazumba, Apoala and Coixtlahuaca. The Zapotecs occupied a large region from Central Valleys region to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. However, no major city state like Monte Albán arose again, with villages and city-states remaining small, between 1,000 and 3,000 people with a palace, temple, market and residences. In a number of cases, there were Mesoamerican ball courts as well. These and larger centers also functioned as military fortresses in time of invasion. Important Zapotec and Mixtec sites include Yagul, Zaachila, Inguiteria, Yanhuitlan, Tamazulapan, Tejupan, and Teposcolula. During nearly all of this time, these various entities were at war with one another, and faced the threat of Aztec expansion.

While the Zapotec remained dominant in many parts of the Central Valleys and into the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Mixtec were pushing into Zapotec territory, taking Monte Alban. In areas they conquered, they became prolific builders, leaving behind numerous and still unexplored sites. However, the conquest of the Central Valleys was never completed with pressure coming from the Aztecs in Tenochtitlan in the 14th and 15th centuries. The Zapotecs and Mixtecs both allied themselves and fought among themselves as they tried to maintain their lands and valuable trade routes between the high central plains of Mexico and Central America.

The first Aztecs arrived to the Oaxaca area in 1250, but true expansion into the region began in the 15th century. In 1457, Moctezuma I invaded the Tlaxiaco and Coixtlahuaca areas, gaining control, demanding tribute and establishing military outposts. These were Mixtec lands at first, pushing these people even further into Zapotec territory. Under Axayacatl and Tizoc, the Aztec began to take control of trade routes in the area and part of the Pacific Coast. By this time, the Zapotec were led by Cosijoeza with the government in Zaachila in the latter 15th century. Under Ahuitzotl, the Aztecs temporarily pushed the Zapotecs into Tehuantepec and established a permanent military base at Huaxyacac (Oaxaca city). The Aztecs were stopped only by the Spanish Conquest. These conquests would change most of the place names in parts of Oaxaca to those from the Nahuatl language. In 1486 the Aztecs established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac (now called El Fortín), overlooking the present city of Oaxaca. This was the major Aztec military base charged with the enforcement of tribute collection and control of trade routes.

However, Aztec rule in Oaxaca would last only a little more than thirty years.

European Settlements

Very soon after the fall of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), Spaniards arrived in Oaxaca. Moctezuma II had informed Hernando Cortes that the area had gold. In addition, when Zapotec leaders heard about the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, they sent an offer of an alliance. Several captains and representatives were sent to the area to explore the area, looking for gold, and routes to the Pacific to establish trade routes to Asian spice markets. The most prominent of Cortés' captains to arrive here were Gonzalo de Sandoval, Francisco de Orozco and Pedro de Alvarado. They overcame the main Aztec military stronghold only four months after the fall of Tenochtitlan. Their reports about the area prompted Cortés to seek the title of the Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca from the European Royalty.

The valley Zapotecs, the Mixtecs of the Upper Mixteca, the Mazatecas and the Cuicatecas, for the most part, choose not to fight the newcomers, instead negotiating to keep most of the old hierarchy but with ultimate authority to the Spanish. Resistance to the new order was sporadic and confined to the Pacific coastal plain, the Zapotec Sierra, the Mixea region and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The Mixes put the most resistance to intrusions on their lands. They not only resisted during the first decade or so of Spanish occupation, like other groups, but through the rest of the 16th century. The last major Mixe rebellion came in 1570, when they burned and looted Zapotec communities and threatened to destroy the Spanish presidio of Villa Alta. However, this rebellion was put down by the Spanish, in alliance with about 2,000 Mixtecs and Aztecs. From this point, the Mixe retreated far into the mountains to isolate themselves, where they are found today.

The first priest in the territory was Juan Diaz, who accompanied Francisco de Orozco and build the first church in what is now the city of Oaxaca. He was followed by Bartolome de Olmade and others who began the superficial conversion of a number of indigenous, including the baptism of Zapotec leader Cosijoeza. In 1528, the Dominicans settled in the city of Oaxaca, forming the Bishopric of Oaxaca in 1535, and began to spread out from there, eventually reaching Tehuantepec and the coast. Other orders followed such as the Jesuits in 1596, the Mercedarians in 1601, and others in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Spanish conquest and subsequent colonization had a devastating effect on the native population, due to European diseases and forced labor. In some areas the native population nearly or completely disappeared. It has been estimated that the native population of the region declined from 1.5 million in 1520 to 150,000 in 1650. Eventually, this would prompt the Spanish to import African slaves to some regions of the state, mostly in the Costa Chica. This poor treatment of indigenous and African populations would continue though the colonial period. Initially, the Spanish did not change native power structures and allowed nobles to keep their privileges as long as they were loyal to the Spanish crown. However, all indigenous were eventually lumped into the category as the Spanish halted warfare among the city-states and creating the official category of "indio" (Indian).

Settlers arriving from Spain brought with them domestic animals that had never been seen in Oaxaca: horses, cows, goats, sheep, chickens, mules and oxen. New crops such as sugar cane, vanilla and tobacco were introduced. However, landholding still remained mostly in indigenous hands, in spite of the fact that only 9% of Oaxaca's terrain is arable. Spanish official and merchants would try to take indigenous privileges due to their social status, but this was resisted. While some of this was violent, the dominant response was to resort to the administrative-judicial system or yield. Violence was reserved for the worst of situations. One native product to reach economic importance during the colonial period was the cochineal insect, used for the making of dyes for textiles. This product was exported to Europe, especially in the 17th and 18th centuries. The use of this insect faded in the 19th century with the discovery of cheaper dyes.

For much of the colonial period, the state (then an intendencia or province) was relatively isolated with few roads and other forms of communication. Most politics and social issues were strictly on the local level. Despite Spanish domination, the indigenous peoples of Oaxaca have maintained much of their culture and identity, more so than most other places in Mexico. Part of this is due to the geography of the land, making many communities isolated.

Independence

By 1810, the city of Oaxaca had 18,000 inhabitants, most of whom where mestizos or mixed indigenous/European. During the Mexican War of Independence the government of this area remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. When representatives of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla came to meet with them, they were hanged and their heads left out in view. Some early rebel groups emerged in the state, such as those led by Felipe Tinoco and Catarino Palacios, but they were also eventually executed. After 1812, insurgents began to have some success in the state, especially in the areas around Huajuapan de León, where Valerio Trujano defended the city against royalist forces until José María Morelos y Pavón was able to come in with support to keep the area in rebel hands. After that point, insurgents had greater success in various parts of the state, but the capital remained in royalist hands until the end of the war.

The state was initially a department after the war ended in 1821, but after the fall of emperor Agustín de Iturbide, it became a state in 1824 with Jose Maria Murguia named as its first governor.

During the 19th century, Oaxaca and the rest of Mexico was split between liberal (federalist) and conservative (centralist) factions. The political and military struggles between the factions resulted in wars and intrigues. Vicente Guerrero, a liberal, was executed by firing squad in Cuilapam in 1831. Liberal Manuel Gomez Pedraza became governor in 1832 but was opposed by General Estaban Moctezuma. He and commandant Luis Quintanar persecuted liberals in the state, including Benito Juárez. The constant warfare had a negative effect on the state's economy and those in the Tehuantepec area supported a separatist movement which was partially successful in the 1850s.

Two Oaxacans, Benito Juarez and Porfirio Díaz were prominent players in the Reform War. It is difficult to overstate Juárez's meaning to the state. He was born on March 21, 1806 in the village of San Pablo Guelatao and was full blooded Zapotec. He began his career studying to be a priest then a lawyer. In 1847, Juarez became governor of Oaxaca, but still faced stern opposition from conservatives such as Lope San Germán. With the success of the Plan de Ayutla, Juarez became governor again, and worked to remove privileges and properties from the Church and landed classes. The Constitution of 1857, was ratified in Oaxaca city, and Juarez left the governor's position to become President of Mexico. He was president during one of Mexico's most turbulent times, fighting invading French forces and conservatives. As a liberal, he imposed many of the reforms which remain today including those in education and separation of church and state. He is also considered to be a legend and a symbol for the indigenous population of the state.

Porfirio Díaz was Juárez's ally through the French Intervention. French imperial forces took Oaxaca city, which was defended by Porfirio Diaz, landing the latter in prison. The capital was later recaptured by the liberals under Carlos Oronoz. However, soon after Juarez took back the presidency, Porfirio Diaz declared rebellion against him from Oaxaca in 1872 under the Plan de Tuxtepec. Juárez died in office. Diaz would succeed in obtaining the presidency and did not relinquish it until the Mexican Revolution.

Late 19th century to present

During Diaz's rule, called the Porfiriato, a number of modernization efforts were undertaken in the state such as public lighting, first with gas then with electricity, railroad lines, new agriculture techniques and the revitalization of commerce. However, most of the benefits of these advances went to national and international corporations and workers and indigenous farmers organized against the regime.

After the Mexican Revolution broke out, Diaz was soon ousted and the rest of the war was among the various factions that had power in different parts of the country. Various leaders such as Francisco I. Madero, Victoriano Huerta and Venustiano Carranza came to the state during this time. However; the most important force in the area was the Liberation Army of the South under Emiliano Zapata. This army would ally and fight against the previous leaders, especially Venustiano Carranza, and hold various portions of the state until 1920. At the end of the Revolution, a new state constitution was written and accepted in 1922.

A series of major disasters occurred in the state from the 1920s to the 1940s. In 1928, a series of earthquakes destroyed many of the buildings in the capital. A much larger earthquake in 1931, was the largest in the state's history, devastating a number of cities along the coast. The 1930s brought the Great Depression, which along with the disasters, prompted wide scale migration to Mexico City. In 1944, torrential rains caused massive flooding in the Tuxtepec region, causing hundreds of deaths.

In the 1940s and 1950s, new infrastructure projects were begun. These included the Izúcar-Tehuantepec section of the Panamerican Highway and the construction of the Miguel Alemán Dam. From the 1980s to the present, there has been much development of the tourism industry in the state. This tourism, as well as the population growth of the capital, prompted the construction of the Oaxaca-Mexico City highway in 1994. Development of tourism has been strongest in the Central Valleys area surrounding the capital, with secondary developments in Huatulco and other locations along the coast. This development was threatened by the violence associated with the 2006 uprising, which severely curtailed the number of incoming tourists for several years.

On February 12, 2008, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake was recorded in Oaxaca.

From the Mexican Revolution until the 2000s, the ruling PRI party held control of almost all of Oaxacan politics from the local to the state level. Challenges to the rule were sporadic and included the student movements of the 1970s, which did bring down the state government. Teachers' strikes had been frequent since then, culminating in the 2006 uprising in Oaxaca city, which brought in groups protesting the heavy marginalization of the poor. The PRI lost its 80-year hold on the state government in 2010 with the election of the PAN gubernatorial candidate Gabino Cué Monteagudo. This has led to speculation of major changes for the state.

Geography

The state is located in the south of Mexico, bordered by the states of Puebla, Veracruz, Chiapas and Guerrero with the Pacific Ocean to the south. It has a territory of 93,967 km2 (36,281 sq mi), accounting for less than 5% of Mexico's territory. Here several mountain chains come together, with the elevation varying from sea level to 3,759 m (12,333 ft) asl, averaging at 1,500 m (4,921 ft) asl. Oaxaca has one of the most rugged terrains in Mexico, with mountain ranges that abruptly fall into the sea. Between these mountains are mostly narrow valleys, canyons and ravines. Major elevations in the state include Cempoaltepetl (3,396 m or 11,142 ft asl), El Espinazo del Diablo, Nindú Naxinda Yucunino and Cerro Encantado. Oaxaca's has 533 km (331 mi) of coastline with nine major bays.

View of Punta Cometa, near Mazunte. A view of the Sierra Mixteca region.

The mountains are mostly formed by the convergence of the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca and the Sierra Atravesada into what is called the Oaxaca Complex (Complejo Oaxaqueño). The Sierra Madre del Sur runs along the coast with an average width of 150 km (93 mi) and a minimum height of 2,000 meters (6,562 ft) asl with peaks over 2,500 m (8,202 ft) asl. In various regions the chain is locally known by other names, such as the Sierra de Miahuatlán and the Sierra de la Garza. The Sierra Madre de Oaxaca enters the state from the Puebla and Veracruz borders in the Tuxtepec region, running northwest to southeast towards the Central Valleys region, then onto the Tehuantepec area. Local names for parts of this range include Sierra de Tamazulapan, Sierra de Nochixtlan, Sierra de Huautla, Sierra de Juárez, Sierra de Ixtlan and others. Average altitude is 2,500 m (8,202 ft) asl with peaks over 3,000 m (9,843 ft) asl and width averages at about 75 km (47 mi). The Sierra Atravesada is a prolongation of the Sierra Madre de Chiapas. This range is not as high as the other two with an average elevation of just over 600 meters (1,969 ft). Most of it is located in the Juchitán district running east-west.

The only valleys of any real size are the Central Valleys between Etla and Miahuatlan, which contains the city of Oaxaca. Smaller populated valleys include Nochixtlan, Nejapa, Cuicatlan and Tuxtepec. Small mesas contain population centers such as Putla, Juxtlahuaca, Tamazulapan, Zacatepec, Tlaxiaco and Huajuapan. The largest canyons in the state are those in the Cuicatlan area and include the Cortés, Galicia and María in the municipality of Tlaxiaco. There are a very large number of small canyons as well as ravines and arroyos of all sizes.

The mountainous terrain allows for no navigable rivers; instead, there are a large number of smaller ones, which often change name from area to area. The continental divide passes through the state, meaning that there is drainage towards both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. Most of the drainage towards the Gulf is represented by the Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos Rivers and their tributaries such as the Grande and Salado Rivers. Three rivers account for most of the water headed for the Pacific: the Mixteco, Atoyac and Tehuantepec Rivers with their tributaries. Other important rivers and streams include the Tequisistlán, Santo Domingo, Putla, Minas, Puxmetacán-Trinidad, La Arena, Cajonos, Tenango, Tonto, Huamelula, San Antonio, Ayutla, Joquila, Copalita, Calapa, Colotepec, Aguacatenango-Jaltepec, Los Perros, El Corte, Espíritu Santo, Sarabia, Ostuta, Petapa and Petlapa.

Regions, districts and major communities

Major cities include Huajuapan de León, Juchitán de Zaragoza, Oaxaca (Oaxaca de Juárez), Puerto Escondido, Salina Cruz, San Pedro Pochutla, San Juan Bautista Cuicatlan, San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Santa Lucía del Camino, Santa María Asunción Tlaxiaco, Santiago Pinotepa Nacional and Tehuantepec (Santo Domingo Tehuantepec).

Regions and districts of Oaxaca are:

Region District Municipalities with 2005
population over 19,000 Area (km2) District
population (2005) Mixteca Juxtlahuaca Santiago Juxtlahuaca 1,848 72,176 Silacayoapam 1,822 30,300 Huajuapan Huajuapan de León 3,270 122,760 Coixtlahuaca 1,666 9,018 Teposcolula 1,547 31,127 Tlaxiaco 2,711 105,775 Nochixtlán 2,799 55,821 Istmo Juchitán Juchitán de Zaragoza 14,392 339,445 Tehuantepec Salina Cruz
Tehuantepec 6,305 222,710 Cañada Teotitlán Huautla de Jiménez 2,212 144,534 Cuicatlán 2,187 51,724 Papaloapan Tuxtepec San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec 5,496 393,595 Choapan 2,987 44,346 Sierra Norte Ixtlán 2,864 36,870 Villa Alta 1,156 29,009 Mixe San Juan Cotzocon 4,930 96,920 Valles Centrales Etla 2,221 117,207 Centro Oaxaca
Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán
Santa Lucía del Camino
Santa María Atzompa 539 515,440 Zaachila Villa de Zaachila 569 41,783 Zimatlán 988 51,738 Ocotlán Ocotlán de Morelos 858 68,840 Tlacolula 3,324 107,653 Ejutla 963 40,985 Sierra Sur Putla Putla Villa de Guerrero 2,627 83,303 Sola de Vega 3,592 74,107 Miahuatlán Miahuatlán de Porfirio Díaz 3,938 109,302 Yautepec 4,559 31,070 Costa Jamiltepec Pinotepa Nacional 4,293 170,249 Juquila San Pedro Mixtepec (Puerto Escondido) 3,531 134,365 Pochutla San Pedro Pochutla
Santa María Huatulco
Santa María Tonameca 3,773 174,649 93,967 3,506,821

Nature and conservation

Although it is the fifth-largest state in Mexico, it has the most biodiversity. There are more than 8,400 registered plant species, 738 bird species and 1,431 terrestrial vertebrate species, accounting for 50% of all species in Mexico. It is also among the five highest-ranking areas in the world for endangered species. The state has important ecological zones such as the Selva Zoque in the northeast. Vegetation varies from those adapted to hot and arid conditions such as cacti to evergreen tropical forest on the coasts. Forests in the higher elevations consist of conifers, broadleafed trees and a mixture of the two. In the lower elevations by the coast there are evergreen and deciduous rainforest, with those dropping leaves doing so in the dry season. In the driest areas mesquite, some cactus and grasslands can be found. There are also 58 species of aquatic plants.

Wildlife includes a wide variety of birds, small to medium-sized mammals and some larger ones such as deer and wildcats, reptiles and amphibians. Off the coast there are fish and shellfish, as well as dolphins and whales which pass by on migration. The state is a prolific place for reptiles such as turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodiles. Of the 808 registered reptile species nationwide, 245 are found in the state. The state has the most amphibian species at 133, with one-third of all Mexican species of frogs and salamanders. It is home to 120 species of freshwater fish, 738 species of birds (70% of Mexico's total) and 190 species of mammals. Some insect forms such as grasshoppers, larvae and cochineal have economic importance for the state and there are several species of 'giant' stick insects indigenous to the region (such as Bacteria horni which has a body length of up to 22 cm). The most important ocean creatures commercially are shrimp, tuna, bonito, huachinango and mojarra. Sea turtles used to be exploited for both their meat and eggs but this was stopped by the federal government in the 1990s. The coast of Oaxaca is an important breeding area for sea turtles such as the leatherback(Dermochelys coriacea), which is classified as endangered throughout its global range. Despite conservations efforts starting in the 1970s, the number of nesting sites and nesting turtles has dramatically decreased.

Conservation efforts in the state are hampered by high marginalization, lack of economic alternatives, agricultural conflicts, change of land use (agricultural activities, fires), over exploitation and pollution of natural water sources, inadequate forest management and illegal tree felling, unsustainable coastal tourist developments, climate change, limited local capacity, and limited local knowledge and valuation of natural resources. However, there are seven officially protected natural areas in the state: Benito Juárez National Park at 3,272 ha (8,090 acres), Huatulco National Park at 11,845 ha (29,270 acres), Lagunas de Chacahua National Park at 14,920 ha (36,900 acres), Playa de Escobilla Sanctuary at 30 ha (74 acres), Playa de la Bahía de Chacahua Sanctuary at 31 ha (77 acres), Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve at 490,678 ha (1,212,490 acres) and Yagul Natural Monument at 1,076 ha (2,660 acres).

Lagunas de Chacahua National Park

Lagunas de Chacahua National Park, created in 1937, lies about 54 km (34 mi) west of Puerto Escondido, near a village called Zapotalito. It can be reached via Federal Highway 200 or by boat from Puerto Escondido. The park encompasses 132.73 square kilometres (51.25 square miles), about 30 km2 (12 sq mi) of which is taken by various lagoons such as the ‘Laguna de Chacahua, ‘Laguna de La Pastoria, and Laguna Las Salinas. There are various smaller lagoons that are connected by narrow channels. The rest of the park consists of dry land.

The park has 10 different types of vegetation: "selva espinosa", swampland, deciduous, sub tropical broadleaf, mangroves, savannah, "bosque de galleria", "tular", palm trees, and coastal dunes. 246 species of flowers and 189 species of animals have been documented so far in the park. Birds such as storks, herons, wild ducks, blue-winged teals, pelicans, and spoonbills can be found here. Three species of turtles also visit the park to lay their eggs.

Benito Juárez National Park

Benito Juárez National Park is located 5 km (3.1 mi) to the north of Oaxaca within the municipal limits of San Felipe del Agua and Donaji, Oaxaca, and San Andres Huayapan of the central district. It was designated as a national park under a presidential decree, in 1937. The topography of the park has an elevation range varying from 1,650 to 3,050 metres (5,413 to 10,007 feet) above sea level. The climate is Coastal sub-humid and Temperate sub-humid. The main rivers that flow through the park are the Huayapan and San Felipe rivers. Most of their flows used to be utilized to meet drinking water needs of Oaxaca through an aqueduct in the early part of the 18th century, during the colonial period. However, it is now tapped for water supply through piped system to the city. The park covers 2,737 hectares (6,760 acres), including the 3,111-meter (10,207 ft) high "Cerro de San Felipe" (San Felipe Mountain), part of the Sierra Madre de Oaxaca which has metamorphic rock formations. It has a rich biodiversity of flora and fauna. There are pine and oak forests in the upper reaches of the mountain, while the lower reaches have scrub oaks, and tropical deciduous forest in the canyons. Most of the forest is secondary growth, having been previously forested.

Huatulco National Park

Huatulco National Park, also known as Bahias de Huatulco National Park – Huatulco, was initially declared a protected area and later decreed as a National Park on July 24, 1998. Located in the Santa Maria Huatulco town, to the west of Cruz Huatulco, it extends to an area of 11,890 hectares (29,400 acres). In the low lands of the park, there 9,000 species of plant (about 50% of the species are reported throughout the country) in the forest and mangroves in the coastal belt. Fauna species have been identified as 264, which includes armadillos and white-tailed deer. Bird species are counted at 701, which include hummingbirds, pelicans and hawks. The amphibian and reptile species are counted to be 470, which include Black Iguana, salamanders and snakes. Dolphins, whales and turtles are sighted species off the coast line, out of the identified 100 marine species. Vegetation is dominated by the low forest growth of caducifolia in 80% area with the unusual feature of 50 ft (15.24 m) high trees.

Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve

Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Biosphere Reserve, which encompasses the states of Puebla and Oaxaca in Mexico, was established as reserve in 1998 covering an area of 490,187 ha (1,211,280 acres), with an altitudinal range of 600 to 2,950 m (1,969 to 9,678 ft). It is in the valley of the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán-Quiotepec. The six rivers which flow through the reserve are the Tomellín, Chiquito, Las Vueltas, Salado, Zapotitán and Río Grande of the Papaloapan watershed, which finally flow into the Gulf of Mexico. On account of wide variation in topography and annual rainfall, the micro-climatic conditions in the reserve has created a biosphere reserve, which is very rich in flora and fauna. The rich biodiversity of the preserve consists of 910 plant genus, 2,700 vascular species, 102 species of mammals, 356 species of birds which includes the endangered Green Macaw (Ara militaris), and 53 species of reptiles. However, the reserve is faced with threats from poaching, deforestation, overgrazing, and trash scattered on the highways and secondary roads that pass close and through the reserve. Inadequate patrolling staff is an issue which needs to be addressed to remove the threats to the biosphere reserve.

Transport

Road, rail and sea

The state has a total of 18,933.4 km (11,764.7 mi) of roadways. Most of these roadways are in the Papaloapam, Mixteca, Isthmus and Coast Regions. The primary highways in the state include Oaxaca (city)-Cuacnopalan toll road and the Pan-American highway, which crosses the state completely from Puebla to Chiapas. Federal highway 200 hugs the coast connecting communities such as Puerto Escondido, Salinas Cruz and Huatulco with Acapulco and Chiapas. Federal highway 185, also called "Transístmica," crosses the state from the Veracruz border to the coast at Salina Cruz. Federal highway 125 runs from the Puebla state line along the western part of the state. Federal highway 135 leads from Puebla to Oaxaca City then down to Pochutla. Federal highway 175 runs from the Veracruz border to the city of Oaxaca. Other highways include Federal highway 147 and Federal highway 182.

There is a railroad line connecting the city of Oaxaca with Mexico City for cargo. The state's major port is Salina Cruz which primarily services ships belonging to PEMEX, bringing crude oil and refined petroleum products along the Mexican coast as well as the United States and Japan. There is also a railroad from Salina Cruz to Vera Cruz and to Tapachula.

Air

Oaxaca-Xoxocotlan Airport (IATA code OAX) is approximately 7 km (4.3 mi) south of Oaxaca city centre. This airport has a runway that measures 2,450 metres (8,038 feet) and a total extension of 435 hectares (1,070 acres) with two hangars. According to figures published by Grupo Aeroportuario del Sureste (ASUR), the airport received 523,104 passengers in 2009. Airlines that fly to the state include Mexicana, Aeroméxico, Aviacsa and Aerocalifornia arriving from Mexico City, Acapulco, Villahermosa and Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Most fly into the city of Oaxaca, but there is direct service between Mexico City and coastal locations such as Huatulco and Puerto Escondido.

Local transportation services

Local public transportation is offered various local business using pickup trucks, buses and small cargo trucks.(eumed) Oaxaca city has separate first class and second class bus stations, offering services to most places within the state of Oaxaca, including the coastal resorts of Huatulco, Puerto Escondido, Puerto Ángel and Pinotepa Nacional, and also long-distance services to Puebla and Mexico City and other Mexican locations such as Veracruz. Intercity bus services is provided by companies such as ADO, Cristòbal Colòn, SUR, Fletes y Pasajes and AU. Smaller providers provide service in vans, especially between the city of Oaxaca and the coast. These operators have existed only semi-legally in the past but legal issues have since been resolved.

Culture

The arts

From the latter half of the 20th century, the state has produced a number of notable painters such as Rufino Tamayo, Rodolfo Nieto, Rodolfo Morales, and Francisco Toledo. These four painters have been influential in the establishment of new movements of art from the state. These movements have spurred exhibitions, galleries, museums and schools such as the Museo de Arte Contemporaneo (MACO) and Instituto de Artes Gráficas de Oaxaca (IAGO). Many of today's artists from Oaxaca have been inspired by past indigenous paintings as well as the colonial era works of Miguel Cabrera.

The state has not produced as many writers as painters but some important names include Adalberto Carriedo, Jacobo Dalevuelta, Andrés Henestrosa and Natalia Toledo.

Music and dance are almost inextricably linked to the state's folkloric heritage. Even more modern composers such as Macedonio Alcalá, Samuel, Mondragón Noriega and José López Alavés are strongly influenced by traditional melodies. Traditional music and dance has its roots in the indigenous traditions that existed long before the Spanish arrived. To these traditions were added elements from European culture and Catholicism. The three main traditions to be found in the state are those of the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs, with a small but distinct community of Afro-Mexicans. Some of the best known dances include Los Diablos, La Tortuga, Las Mascaritas and Los Tejorones. In the Afro-Mexican Costa Chica region, a dance called Las Chilenas stands out. La Sandunga is a song that typifies the musical style of the Tehuantepec region and a musical style called "son bioxho" is an endemic form of the son style played with drums, an empty tortoise shell and a reed flute.

Food and drink

Oaxacan cuisine varies widely due to the relative geographic isolation of its peoples, and the climates in which foods are produced. Oaxaca's gastronomy is known for its "seven moles," chapulines, Oaxaca tamales in banana leaves, tasajo and mescal. Regional variations include the wide variety of vegetables in the Central Valleys region, fish and shellfish in the Coast and Isthmus regions and the year-round availability of tropical fruit in the Papaloapan area on the Veracruz border. Like most of the rest of Mexico, corn is the staple food, with corn tortillas, called "blandas" accompanying most meals. Black beans are preferred. Oaxaca produces seven varieties of mole called manchamanteles, chichilo, Amarillo, rojo, verde, coloradito and negro. These moles and other dishes are flavored with a variety of chili peppers such as pasillas Oaxaqueños, amarillos, chilhuacles, chilcostles, chile anchos and costeños. Epazote, pitiona and hoja santa are favored herbs in Oaxacan cooking. The last is indispensable for the preparation of verde version of mole.

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Chocolate, which is grown in the state, plays an important part in the making of certain moles, but is best known for its role as a beverage. The cacao beans are ground then combined with sugar, almonds, cinnamon and other ingredients to form bars. Pieces of these bars are mixed with hot milk or water and drunk. Oaxaca cheese is a soft white string cheese which is similar to mozzarella. It is sold in "ropes" which are wound onto themselves into balls. It is eaten cold or lightly melted on quesadillas and other dishes. One unique aspect to Oaxacan cuisine is the consumption of "chapulines," which are a type of grasshopper that has been fried and seasoned with salt, lime and chili pepper.

There is a saying in Oaxaca, "Para todo mal, mezcal, para todo bien, también" (For everything bad, mezcal; for everything good, too.) Alcoholic and non alcoholic drinks (as well as food items) based on the maguey plant have been consumed in many parts of Mexico since early in the pre-Hispanic period. The tradition of the making of the distilled liquor called mezcal has been a strong tradition in the Oaxacan highlands since the colonial period. One reason for this is the quality and varieties of maguey grown here. Some varieties, such as espadín and arroquense are cultivated but one variety called tobalá is still made with wild maguey plants. It is made with the heart of the plant which is roasted in pits (giving the final product a smokey flavor) and is sometimes flavored with a chicken or turkey breast added to the mash. It is mezcal, not tequila, and may contain a "worm," which is really a larvae that infests maguey plants. The final distilled product can be served as is or can be flavored (called cremas) with almonds, coffee, cocoa fruits and other flavors.

The town of Santiago Matatlán calls itself the world capital of mezcal. The best known producer here is Rancho Zapata, which also has a restaurant. It is owned by a man that goes only by the name of Tío (uncle) Pablo, who won first prize for his mescal in Chicago in 2003. In many parts of the Central Valleys area, one can find small stands and stores selling locally made mezcal on roadsides.

Landmarks and tourist attractions

Monte Albán

Most tourist attractions are located in the city of Oaxaca and the Central Valleys region that surrounds it. This area is the cultural, geographical and political center of the state, filled with pre-Hispanic ruins, Baroque churches and monasteries, indigenous markets and villages devoted to various crafts. The capital city, along with nearby Monte Albán together are listed as a World Heritage Site. Many of the attractions in the city proper are located between the main square or Zocalo and along Andador Macedonio Alcalà Street, known as the Andador Turístico or Tourist Walkway. These include the Cathedral, the Basilica of Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, Museum of Contemporary Art (MACO), Rufino Tamayo Museum and the Mercado 20 de Noviembre Market, known for its food stands. The most important annual festival is the Guelaguetza, also called the Fiesta del Lunes del Cerro (Festival of Mondays at the Mountain) which occurs each July.

The largest and most important archeological site is Monte Albán, which was capital of the Zapotec empire. Also important as an archaeological site is the ancient Zapotec center of Mitla at the eastern end of the Central Valleys which is noted for its unique ancient stone fretwork and abstract mosaics. Between Mitla and Monte Albán there are a number of other important archeological sites such as Yagul, Dainzú and Lambityeco. The most important of these three is Lambityeco, in the middle of the Tlacolula Valley. It was occupied from 600 BCE to 800 CE and coincides with Monte Alban. It was important at that time for its production of salt. Yagul is a ceremonial center on the side of a mountain. Features include a Mesoamerican ball court, the La Rana courtyard, a temple, palace and other buildings.

Other attractions in the area include colonial constructions such as the monasteries in Cuilapan, Tlaxiaco, Coixthlahuaca, Yanhuitlán and Santo Domingo. Churches include the Cathedral in Oaxaca and the main church of Teposcolula. Hierve el Agua is an area with "petrified" waterfalls, where water with extremely high mineral content falls over the side of cliffs, forming stone waterfall-like structures. The name means "boiling water" but the water is not hot; rather it pushes up from the ground in places which looks like water boiling. Santa María del Tule is home to an enormous Montezuma cypress (Taxodium mucronatum) tree which is over 2,000 years old. The town of Zaachila is known for its archeological site and weekly market.

The second most important zone for tourism is the coast especially from Puerto Escondido to Huatulco, with sandy beaches on the Pacific Ocean, dolphins, sea turtles, and lagoons with water birds. Many beaches are nearly virgin with few visitors but several areas have been developed such as Puerto Escondido, Huatulco, Puerto Ángel, Zipolite, San Agustinillo and Mazunte. Puerto Escondido is an important destination for tourism from within Mexico with beaches such as Playa Carrizalillo and also attracts international surfers to Zicatela Beach, where an annual surfing competition is held. There are also areas of Oaxaca that are promoted for ecotourism such as Lagunas de Chacahua National Park set in 14,267 hectares of lagoons, rivers, beaches, mangroves, rainforest and grasslands with some 136 species of birds, 23 of reptiles, 4 amphibians and twenty types of mammals.

Yagul Natural Monument, located in the Tlacolula Valley, 35 km to the east of Oaxaca city, was a settlement in the early part of the Monte Alban 1 Period (500 CE). It flourished as an urban centre, following the abandonment of Monte Alban around 800 BCE. However, even Yagul was abandoned for a brief period, before it became a city-state in Oaxaca. This status continued until the Spanish Conquistadores invaded the valley, which was then a settlement of Zapotecs. The fortified complex is laid out in three zones; the central part approached through a series of steps is a built-up platform that leads to the temples and palaces. It has the largest ball court in the valley and stated to be the largest in the Mesoamerican region. The palace of the rulers is an enormous monolith with six porticos and several entrances, built in stone and clay and covered with stucco. The main tomb has a stone façade, which is beautified with carved human heads and features hieroglyphic motifs on the door slab on both sides. To the south of the Palace of the Six Porticos, there is a narrow street that is paved with stone mosaics extracted from the nearby mountain. The street terminates into a long, narrow room called the 'Sala de Consejo' (Council Chamber).

Handicrafts

Because of its indigenous tradition and abundance of raw materials, Oaxaca is a leading producer of handcrafts in Mexico. Handcrafted items here are noted for their variety and quality. Oaxacan handcrafts are traditionally made with wood, wool, clay and leather and are sold in many venues from local tianguis markets to upscale international stores. The best-known wood craft is the making of "alebrije" figures, which are usually miniature, brightly colored real or imaginary animals. These were originally created from paper and cardboard in Mexico City, but this craft was adapted to native Oaxacan woodcarving to the form it has today. Carver Manuel Jiménez of Arrazola is credited with the creating of the Oaxacan version of this craft. Other wood crafts include the making of masks, toys and utensils. Major woodcarving areas include San MartínTilcajete and Arrazola.

Pottery has a long tradition that extends into the pre-Hispanic period. Oaxaca shares many pottery types with other parts of Mexico along with two of its own: barro negro and the green glazed pottery of Atzompa. The first is centered in the town of San Bartolo Coyotepec near the capital city. This pottery gets its color from the local clay used to make it and its shine from a technique developed by Doña Rosa Nieto in the mid-20th century. The Atompa green-glazed ware is made much the same way it was in colonial times, although there have been some recent innovations with color and decorative techniques. This pottery is found in Santa María Atzompa, near Oaxaca city.

Another major craft category is textiles. Textiles from cotton and other fibers date to early in the pre-Hispanic period on backstrap looms. This form of weaving has been dominated by women since that time. The Spanish introduced the wide European frame loom, which is mostly used by men. Traditional clothing items such as huipils are still made on backstrap looms, while the European looms are used to produce larger and heavier items such as rugs, ponchos and blankets. Most items are produced with cotton or wool fibers, although some maguey fibers can be found and palm fronds are used to produce mats and hats. Embroidery is an important part of indigenous clothing, especially for women. One municipality noted for its indigenous and embroidered clothing is Santo Tomás Jalietza, just south of the city of Oaxaca. The Xochimilco neighborhood of the capital is known for its embroidered tablecloths, napkins and other tableware.

Both precious and non-precious metals are worked in the state. Many gold and silver jewelry items are made with filigree (fine metal thread) which is weaved and wrapped into shapes. This technique is Arab in origin and was introduced by the Spanish. The municipalities of Santo Domingo Tehuantepec, Juchitán de Zaragoza and Huajuapan de León are known for this work. Other metals, especially iron, are forged into utilitarian and decorative items in places such as Santiago Jamiltepec and Tlacolula de Matamoros. Items produced include mirrors, frames, figures, knives, machetes and more.

Health

Ninety five percent of Oaxaca's population receives health care from one or more government programs. Government health services used include IMSS; Seguridad Social, ISSSTE and that related to PEMEX.(infraes) The state sponsors the Servicios de Salud de Oaxaca (SSO) which primarily works to provide antibiotics and other medicines to public dispensaries. It is meant to supplement other federal and state services such as IMSS. There are 1,020 primary care medical facilities and 28 hospitals in the state, 3,240,024 people are registered in one or more government programs and are attended by 3,337 doctors, 5,400 paramedics and 6,887 other health providers. Hospital Regional de Alta Especialidad de Oaxaca was constructed by the federal government as the first "level three" or high level specialty hospital in the state. It was opened in 2006 and is located in San Bartolo Coyotepec.

One particular health problem the state has is outbreaks of dengue fever during the rainy season, which occurs from June to October. Some of these cases are hemorrhagic. The problem is more severe in the tropical lowlands of the state, near the ocean.

Despite the health services that exist, there are serious problems and deficiencies. As of 1997, life expectancy in the state was 71.5 years, 9 years higher than in 1990. The death rate has decreased from 5.79 deaths per thousand to 5.14. While much of Mexico's health care system struggles to meet needs, the system in Oaxaca, one of the country's poorest states, has it particularly bad. The relatively prosperous state of Nuevo León has 3,207 hospital beds, while Oaxaca has only 1,760, despite the fact that the two states have about the same population. There is about the same ratio of doctors between the two states. Forty four percent of pregnant women receive pre-natal care from people who are not medically qualified. 70 women each year die from complications from pregnancy and childbirth, and most of these are avoidable, due to bleeding and eclampsia. For every 100,000 live births in Oaxaca, there are 95.1 maternal deaths, over the national average of 63.3, putting the state in the top five.

The state lacks sufficient numbers of health care workers and lacks specialized hospital and other facilities. Other problems include obsolete medical equipment, lack of medicines. Many of these problems have persisted for decades. Health care providers offer an average of 20,000 consults each day, covering a population of 800,000 people. In 2000, there was only one doctor for every 180 people.

In 2006, health care workers held a work stoppage and march, demanding improvements in the health care system along with the ouster of Governor Ulises Ruiz Ortiz. Most of the participating strikers were from the hospital and emergency room sectors, from 15 hospitals and 650 health centers in the state.